Julie Radomski – The habanera, the tango, and “redemption”

In beginning his historically-styled account of the life and death of Lazarus Morrell, Borges references a long list of “philanthropists” who have in some way “redeemed” or validated African culture in the Americas. The list ends with references to three dances: the habanera, the tango, and candombe. The way the habanera and the tango are listed is of particular interest because it links the habanera as “the mother of tango,” although tango has many other significant influences. To explain this wording, it is necessary to identify the roots of both the habanera and the tango, particularly in how they relate to the “redemption” of African song and dance into Latin American popular culture.

In Cuba the “habanera” (named after Cuba’s capital city) is referred to by its European name, the contradanza. Although it developed out of a French dance, the habanera is based around African drum rhythms – a manifestation of the creolization of Cuban culture in the 1800s. Many thousands of slaves had been brought to work on the sugar plantations on which Cuba’s economy was based. During this time period the African population (mainly enslaved) actually outnumbered European descendants (the indigenous Taino and Ciboney groups were exterminated in the Eastern part of the island shortly after initial European conquest). In the 1800s, many plantation slaves were freed, bought their freedom, or worked as domestic slaves in Habana. In addition, Haitian refugees arrived in Habana en masse after the Revolution of 1791, bringing French ballroom-style dancing. Mixing between Haitian and Cuban cultures resulted in the creation of the habanera, which grew to become famous not only in Cuba but also throughout Latin America and Europe. The habanera also became popular in the United States, particularly in the South (where our story takes place) focused around New Orleans as habanero musicians moved between the two cities.

Many forms of African-rooted song and dance had been banned in Latin America in years past, but elites not only sanctioned but adopted the habanera. The habanera gained great popularity in Spain particularly. Although they were not responsible for its creative development, many white Spanish composers became rich and famous off of habanera music. The same cannot be said of its original creators in Habana, particularly those of lower-class or slave descent. The popularity of the habanera was in many ways less a “redemption” than a cooptation of African and Haitian musical traditions.

As identified by Borges, in Argentina the habanera rhythms had a significant influence on tango music and dance. In fact, the word “tango” was first used in Habana in 1823 to describe a type of habanera, while the word was not printed in Argentina until 1866. At its origins, habanera rhythms were the foundation of the tango, and it is still clearly identifiable as a major influence today. Nevertheless, tellingly, the origins of tango are usually attributed primarily to European immigrants in the Southern Cone rather than Cuban or Haitian slaves.

Just as Lazarus Morrell helped slaves escape only to resell them for his own profit, elite musicians and dancers appropriated the habanera for their own benefit. While African-influenced forms song and dance were “saved” from obscurity, repression, and disdain by the spread of the habanera, the artists who were responsible for originally making it a phenomenon in Habana are nowhere recognized or recompensed. Furthermore, the strong influences of the habanera (in particular its African origins) are minimized in describing the development of the tango. As we know, the tango is lasting global musical genre, far more well-known and appreciated than the habanera in the modern day. In identifying both the habanera and its influence on the birth of the tango, Borges is pointing out the significance of African influences on the development of culture in the Americas, as well as the “cruel” tragedy that this has done little good for Africans themselves.